Payment captured and seen in magento admin 2.1.8 but error "Sorry, the payment attempt is failed"

When trying to place order, it throw following error after click on “place order” button but the payment captured from account and order can be seen on magento admin. In short, we are unable to see success page.

Error message at checkout page, “Sorry, the payment attempt is failed Please try again or try another payment method”

Also, please see attached screen shot. One for error on checkout page and second for the amount captured and order seen in admin.checkout_stripe_error

My Stripe module has been successfully working on the gothelist.com website since 2017-05-03 (more than a year).
After which modification exactly the module became broken?